Translation of Jurchen Script and the Calligraphic Creation of Jurchen and Manchu Scripts
Translation of Jurchen Script and the Calligraphic Creation of Jurchen and Manchu Scripts
MING YE
Translation of Jurchen Script and the Calligraphic Creation of Jurchen and Manchu Scripts
Ye Ming
Introduction
Manchu and Jurchen are two closely related linguistic traditions that occupy an important place in the study of East Asian history and culture. The Jurchen script was developed and used during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), whereas Manchu became the official written language of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). Although the peoples who used these two languages were historically connected, the two writing systems do not constitute a direct line of graphic descent. Manchu script was derived from the traditional Mongolian script, which can ultimately be traced back to the Old Uyghur script. Manchu is written vertically, with columns arranged from left to right. Several systems of Manchu transliteration are currently in use, including the Möllendorff system and the Taiqing system.
Jurchen, the linguistic ancestor closely associated with Manchu, was written in the Jurchen script, whose development was influenced by the Khitan writing system; Khitan writing, in turn, was developed within a cultural environment profoundly shaped by Chinese writing.
Despite the absence of direct graphic continuity between the Jurchen and Manchu scripts, the languages they represent display substantial historical continuity in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary. By the late Ming period, the Jurchen script had largely fallen out of use in Jurchen-inhabited regions. Mongolian subsequently served for a considerable period as an important written medium among the Jurchens. Old Manchu was later created on the basis of Mongolian script and was subsequently modified into what is generally known as the New Manchu script.
Consequently, there is no straightforward historical tradition of directly translating Jurchen-script texts into Manchu. The relationship between Jurchen and Manchu is therefore complex, involving linguistic continuity without direct continuity of script. This study explores methods for employing Manchu linguistic resources in the interpretation of Jurchen texts and further examines the structural and artistic characteristics of Jurchen-script calligraphy.
1. The History of the Jurchen Script
1.1 Creation and Development of the Jurchen Script
The Jurchen script was created during the Jin dynasty and is traditionally discussed in terms of two forms, commonly referred to as the Jurchen large script and small script. The large script generally employed relatively complex character forms and structures, whereas the small script represented a different and, in certain respects, more economical mode of writing. The formation of Jurchen writing was influenced by the Khitan scripts while developing its own graphic structures and conventions of use.
During the Jin dynasty, Jurchen writing was used extensively in official and ceremonial contexts. It appeared in imperial documents, administrative records, monumental inscriptions, coinage, seals, and other objects associated with government and ritual practice. The Jin government also established institutions for translation and language training, facilitating communication between Chinese and Jurchen.
Following the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty in 1234, Jurchen writing lost the political and institutional support it had enjoyed under the Jin state, and its sphere of use gradually contracted. By the early Ming dynasty, its role in everyday written communication had substantially diminished, although knowledge of the script appears to have survived to varying degrees among certain Jurchen communities. By the middle Ming period, Mongolian writing had become increasingly influential among a number of Jurchen groups, including the Haixi and Jianzhou Jurchens. Eventually, the older Jurchen writing tradition ceased to function as a living system of everyday communication.
2. Linguistic Connections between Jurchen and Manchu
In 1599, Nurhaci ordered Erdeni and Gagai to devise a writing system for the Manchu language. This system, now conventionally referred to as Old Manchu, was based on the Mongolian script. In 1632, during the reign of Hong Taiji, Dahai introduced important modifications to the script, contributing to the formation of the system generally known as New Manchu.
Although the Manchu script itself was not directly derived from Jurchen writing, the languages represented by the two scripts are historically and linguistically closely related. This relationship provides an important basis for using Manchu linguistic evidence in the interpretation and reconstruction of Jurchen.
From a historical-linguistic perspective, Jurchen and Manchu belong to the Tungusic language family and display substantial similarities in grammatical structure, phonological features, and basic vocabulary. Their linguistic affinity is particularly evident in the following respects:
Phonological features: both languages exhibit historically related patterns of vowel harmony and consonantal alternation;
Grammatical structure: both display agglutinative characteristics, extensive use of suffixes, and broadly comparable patterns of word order;
Basic vocabulary: numerous terms relating to everyday life and fundamental concepts demonstrate clear historical correspondences.
3. Reference Works for the Study of Jurchen
3.1 Nüzhen Yiyu (女真译语)
Nüzhen Yiyu is an important historical source for the study of the Jurchen language. It belongs to the broader tradition of the Huayi Yiyu (华夷译语), multilingual glossaries compiled by institutions responsible for translation and diplomatic communication during the Ming dynasty. These materials recorded Chinese equivalents and phonetic transcriptions for words from various languages used in diplomatic and frontier interactions.
The Jurchen materials preserve vocabulary through Chinese phonetic transcription accompanied by Chinese glosses. They therefore constitute valuable evidence for reconstructing Jurchen pronunciation, vocabulary, and historical linguistic features.
3.2 Dictionary of the Jurchen Script (女真文辞典)
The Dictionary of the Jurchen Script is an important modern reference work for the study of the Jurchen language and writing system. Unlike historical glossaries, it is a scholarly compilation based on the analysis of surviving inscriptions, documentary materials, and archaeological discoveries.
Professor Jin Qicong (1918–2004) was one of the leading twentieth-century scholars of Jurchen and Manchu studies. His work on Jurchen writing systematically assembled characters and lexical items preserved in Jin-period inscriptions, documents, and excavated materials, providing Chinese explanations and classifications based on graphic and linguistic features.
Such reference works have played an important role in the reconstruction and interpretation of the Jurchen writing system and provide essential foundations for comparative research involving Jurchen and Manchu.
4. A Method for Translating Jurchen through Manchu
Through my long-term research on Manchu and Jurchen, together with my practice of calligraphic creation in both scripts, I have gradually developed a practical method for interpreting and translating Jurchen on the basis of extensive comparison and translation work. This approach takes Manchu linguistic resources and their historical significance as its point of departure. Its fundamental principle may be summarized as “interpreting Jurchen through Manchu and verifying Manchu through Jurchen.” Through bidirectional comparison and the cross-verification of phonetic and semantic evidence, the method seeks to facilitate the interpretation and reconstruction of Jurchen texts even in the absence of a completely reconstructed grammatical system or comprehensive instructional materials.
The Jurchen script was created during the Jin dynasty, approximately five centuries before the creation of the Manchu script. Although Jurchen writing gradually disappeared from regular use and its grammatical system and much of its vocabulary have yet to be fully reconstructed, Jurchen and Manchu are historically related Tungusic languages. Significant correspondences can be identified in their phonological systems, lexical structures, and syntactic patterns.
On the basis of this linguistic relationship, I propose using Manchu as a comparative linguistic framework through which Jurchen expressions may be reconstructed by mapping semantic, phonological, and grammatical correspondences between the two languages.
In practical application, the method consists of three principal stages.
Stage One: Comparative Analysis through Manchu
The first stage compares individual Manchu lexical items with corresponding or potentially corresponding Jurchen forms. Particular attention is given to archaic meanings, cognate vocabulary, and related lexical roots preserved in Manchu. These materials are used to identify possible historical relationships and to establish a preliminary table of semantic correspondences.
Stage Two: Phonological Reconstruction and Verification
After establishing a tentative semantic correspondence, the phonological patterns of Jurchen are examined in order to reconstruct possible historical pronunciations. These reconstructed forms are then compared with known Manchu vocabulary.
This procedure serves two purposes: it provides an additional means of evaluating proposed translations, and it offers a practical method for exploring the possible readings of Jurchen characters whose pronunciation remains uncertain.
Stage Three: Contextual Application and Feedback-Based Revision
Once a preliminary interpretation has been established, the translated expressions are incorporated into Manchu–Jurchen calligraphic works. Their use in an actual textual and artistic context provides an additional means of examining whether the proposed interpretation is linguistically coherent and historically plausible.
The translations are subsequently revised in light of newly published scholarship, newly identified Jurchen materials, and further comparative evidence. Through this iterative process of contextual testing and revision, the translation does not remain merely a linguistic reconstruction but can also convey the historical and cultural dimensions of the original language.
The method additionally employs comparative evidence from Jin-period inscriptions, Jurchen character tables, Khitan materials, and other relevant historical sources. These materials make it possible to examine patterns of linguistic change and semantic development. For example, in the analysis of place names, personal names, and clan names appearing in Jin-period Jurchen inscriptions, I have observed a number of forms that appear to have cognates or closely related forms in Manchu. Such correspondences provide supporting evidence for the feasibility of interpreting Jurchen through Manchu and may also contribute to research on historical place names and clan nomenclature.
The application of this approach offers a practical means of addressing cases in which individual Jurchen characters may be identifiable while the meaning of an entire expression remains uncertain. It also provides linguistic support for the creation of Manchu–Jurchen calligraphy, allowing contemporary works to engage more directly with the historical, cultural, and philological dimensions of the languages represented.
5. Selected Calligraphic Works Combining Manchu and Jurchen Scripts
“Rising Like the Sun” (如日方升)
Manchu and Jurchen scripts.
Created by Yehenara Yulin (Ye Ming), June 2016.
“Buddha” (佛)
Manchu, Chinese, Jurchen, and Tangut scripts.
Created by Yehenara Yulin (Ye Ming), 2022.
“Across the Four Seas” (纵横四海)
Manchu, Jurchen, and Chinese scripts.
Created by Yehenara Yulin (Ye Ming) and Aisin Gioro Hengxi, 2024.
“The Jurchens Cannot Be Defeated Once Their Number Reaches Ten Thousand” (女真不满万，满万不可敌)
Manchu and Jurchen scripts.
Created by Yehenara Yulin (Ye Ming), March 2025.
6. Structural Characteristics of Jurchen Writing
Jurchen characters are generally structurally complex and may consist of multiple strokes arranged within relatively compact graphic units. Different forms of Jurchen writing display varying degrees of graphic complexity. Jurchen texts were generally written vertically, with columns traditionally arranged from right to left, corresponding to common East Asian manuscript and inscriptional conventions of the period.
From the perspective of calligraphic form, four characteristics may be identified:
Combination of curved and straight strokes.
Jurchen characters employ both linear and curved elements, producing visual variation and movement.
Interaction of dots and strokes.
Dots, short strokes, and extended lines interact to form the basic graphic structures of individual characters.
Graphic independence.
Individual characters function as visually discrete units, allowing relatively regular spacing between characters.
Vertical extension.
Many character forms exhibit a pronounced vertical tendency that corresponds naturally to the vertical organization of Jurchen writing.
7. Analysis of Jurchen Inscriptions
7.1 The Shiwuji Inscription (石屋记)
The Shiwuji is an important surviving example of Jurchen epigraphic writing from the Jin period. Its calligraphic characteristics include relatively square character forms, disciplined internal structures, orderly composition, and regular spacing.
From an artistic perspective, the inscription demonstrates the monumental and solemn qualities associated with formal Jurchen epigraphy. Its visual organization reflects the ceremonial and political environment in which such inscriptions were produced.
7.2 The Da Jin Deshengtuo Song (大金得胜陀颂)
The Da Jin Deshengtuo Song is one of the important monuments containing Jurchen writing. Its calligraphic characteristics include comparatively fluid strokes, controlled transitions, and a well-organized rhythm between characters and lines.
The inscription demonstrates the increasingly mature use of Jurchen writing within the epigraphic tradition of the Jin period and provides important material for examining the development of Jurchen calligraphic forms.
7.3 The Hongfa Temple Stone Pillar (弘法寺石幢)
The Hongfa Temple stone pillar is a significant artifact combining religious significance with epigraphic and calligraphic value. Its Jurchen writing is characterized by rounded strokes, relatively compact character structures, and an orderly overall arrangement.
The monument provides an important example of the interaction between Jurchen writing and Buddhist material culture and illustrates the application of the script in religious contexts during the Jin period.
8. Comparison between Jurchen and Manchu Calligraphic Conventions
Although Jurchen and Manchu are historically related languages, their writing systems differ substantially in graphic structure.
Jurchen characters generally possess relatively complex internal structures, whereas Manchu employs a comparatively economical alphabetic system. Jurchen characters normally function as discrete graphic units, while Manchu letters form words through systematic joining. Consequently, Manchu possesses highly developed rules governing initial, medial, and final letter forms, whereas Jurchen writing operates according to fundamentally different structural principles.
These differences in writing systems also produce different calligraphic priorities.
Jurchen calligraphy places particular emphasis on the internal structural balance of individual characters, whereas Manchu calligraphy must additionally consider the rhythm and visual coherence of continuously connected letter forms and vertical word structures.
Jurchen characters frequently employ relatively angular transitions, while Manchu calligraphy often makes greater use of flowing and rounded transitions derived from its connected alphabetic structure.
The treatment of spatial relationships also differs. Jurchen calligraphy tends to concentrate visual structure within discrete character units, while Manchu calligraphy can create more pronounced variation between compact and open spaces through the vertical extension and connection of letters.
These differences demonstrate that the artistic comparison of Jurchen and Manchu calligraphy should not be based solely on the historical relationship between the languages. Rather, it must also take into account the fundamentally different graphic principles of the two writing systems.
Author Biography
Ye Ming, whose Manchu name is Yehenara Yulin, was born in Beijing in 1983. He currently serves as Deputy Secretary-General of the Chinese Society for Manchu Studies and as Vice President and Secretary-General of the Chinese Manchu Calligraphy Research Association. He is the founder of Jixiang Manzu, a major online platform devoted to Manchu culture, and has served as a visiting professor at the Academy of Arts & Design, Tsinghua University. He is also a member of the China Calligraphers Association.
His publications include A Concise Introduction to the Manchu Language and Script, Military Transformation in the Late Qing Dynasty, The Qing Dynasty: Winds and Clouds of an Empire, and The Twelve Empresses and Consorts of the Qing Dynasty: A Historical Reappraisal. Ye Ming currently resides in the United States.
References
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Jin Qicong. (1984). Dictionary of the Jurchen Script [《女真文辞典》]. Beijing.
Liu Fengzhu. (1995). Studies on the Jurchen Script [《女真文研究》]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.
Fuheng et al. (1772). Imperially Commissioned Pentaglot Dictionary [《御制五体清文鉴》]. Beijing: Wuying Hall.
Ashtan. (1730). Introduction to the Manchu Language [《清文启蒙》]. Beijing: Wuying Hall.
Guan Xiaolian. (1998). Manzhou Shilu [《满洲实录》]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.
Jin Qicong. (1996). Collected Epigraphic Materials in the Jurchen Script [《女真文金石资料汇编》]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.