Manchu-Language Rare Books as Evidence of Multiethnic Cultural Exchange in the Qing Dynasty
Manchu-Language Rare Books as Evidence of Multiethnic Cultural Exchange in the Qing Dynasty
YUANFENG WU / MING YE
9/26/202616 min read
Manchu-Language Rare Books as Evidence of Multiethnic Cultural Exchange in the Qing Dynasty
Translation, Historical Writing, Education, and Multilingual Scholarship in the Qing Empire
Original Author: Wu Yuanfeng (吴元丰)
Compiled and Translated by: MING YE
China is a multiethnic country. Over the course of its long history, different peoples interacted, communicated, and integrated with one another, collectively contributing to the development of a Chinese civilization and cultural tradition extending across several millennia.
The Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of China, lasted for nearly three centuries. During this period, an enormous body of books and documents was produced in Manchu, as well as in bilingual and multilingual editions combining Manchu with Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan, and other languages.
The Manchu-language rare books that survive today—whether examined in terms of their contents or the languages and scripts in which they were written—provide important documentary evidence of the breadth and depth of cultural interaction among the different peoples of the Qing period.
Respect for Confucianism: The Systematic Translation of Confucian Classics
Confucianism, centered on the teachings associated with Confucius, became one of the most influential intellectual traditions in Chinese history. From the Han dynasty onward, Confucian learning gradually developed into a central component of imperial political culture and traditional education, leaving behind an extraordinarily rich textual heritage.
Although the Qing rulers introduced certain institutional innovations, they also inherited many of the fundamental political and cultural traditions of earlier Chinese dynasties. In intellectual life, they placed considerable emphasis on Confucian learning, ethical education, and personal cultivation.
Even during the reigns of Nurhaci and Hong Taiji, before the Qing had established rule over China proper, the emerging Manchu state actively studied Chinese historical and intellectual traditions as well as the governing experience of previous dynasties.
Hong Taiji employed Confucian ethical principles in the education of younger members of the ruling elite. Passages from the Chinese Four Books and the Classic of Filial Piety were selected and explained regularly in Manchu.
At the same time, Chinese books were translated into Manchu.
Dahai, one of the most important figures in the early development of Manchu translation, was ordered to translate numerous Chinese works. Records mention translations of such works as the Xingbu Huidian, Sushu, Sanlüe, and Wanbao Quanshu, while other texts—including the Zizhi Tongjian, Liutao, Mencius, Records of the Three Kingdoms, and Buddhist writings—were also being translated.
Confucian Learning after the Qing Conquest
After the Qing established its capital in Beijing and developed a government ruling the whole country, its support for Confucian learning became even more systematic.
The Shunzhi Emperor declared:
“Now that the realm is gradually becoming settled, I shall promote education, honor the Classics, and cultivate learning in order to open an age of peace.”
One important institution inherited from earlier dynasties was the Classics Colloquium, or jingyan (经筵), in which scholars lectured the emperor on classical texts and history.
The Qing continued and further developed this tradition. Beginning with the first Qing jingyan in 1657, during the Shunzhi reign, the institution continued for more than two centuries, with the final session held in 1860 during the Xianfeng reign.
During the Shunzhi period, numerous Confucian works and related texts were translated or compiled and printed from woodblocks, including the Book of Songs, imperial editions of the Classic of Filial Piety, and works concerned with moral and political education.
The Kangxi Emperor and Confucian Translation
The Kangxi Emperor further promoted Confucian learning and traditional scholarship.
He recruited scholars, encouraged classical studies, and invited Confucian officials to lecture at the imperial court. Confucian classics continued to be translated into Manchu and were published in forms connected with imperial lectures.
Among these works were the Daily Explanations of the Four Books, Daily Explanations of the Book of Documents, and Daily Explanations of the Book of Changes.
These books recorded explanations of Confucian classics presented to the emperor and reflected discussions of classical principles, personal cultivation, family order, and government.
Kangxi also encouraged the study of Neo-Confucian philosophy. Li Guangdi and other scholars were ordered to compile a condensed and revised work based on earlier scholarship, resulting in the twelve-juan Yuzuan Xingli Jingyi (Imperially Compiled Essentials of Neo-Confucian Philosophy), which was published separately in Manchu and Chinese.
Retranslating the Classics under the Qianlong Emperor
By the Qianlong period, after approximately a century of Qing rule, the dynasty had developed an increasingly standardized body of Manchu political and scholarly terminology.
Against the background of the imperial program for establishing standardized “New Qing Terms,” earlier Manchu translations of Confucian classics were translated or revised again.
The Qianlong Emperor paid close attention to these translations. After scholarly officials submitted drafts, he personally reviewed and revised them with the aim of producing more fluent and standardized Manchu versions.
Between 1755 and 1783, major Confucian works—including the Four Books, Book of Documents, Book of Changes, Book of Songs, Book of Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals—were translated again and printed by the Wuying Palace Printing Office in Manchu-Chinese bilingual editions.
From the middle Qing onward, the practical use of Manchu gradually declined, and the scale of officially sponsored translation and publication of Chinese classics decreased compared with the Kangxi and Qianlong periods.
Nevertheless, Confucian learning continued to occupy an important position in Qing education. Classical texts continued to be taught in government schools, and the translation and publication of Confucian works in Manchu did not completely cease until the end of the dynasty.
The Qianlong translations became especially influential as models for later revisions.
When the Xianfeng Emperor ordered the translation of the Daxue Yanyi in 1856, for example, he specifically referred to the translations of the Four Books, Five Classics, and historical works produced during the Qianlong reign as standards for terminology and translation.
Bilingual and multilingual editions of Confucian works also circulated beyond the imperial publishing establishment. Commercial publishers were permitted to reproduce certain editions, and versions based on the Wuying Palace editions continued to be printed into the late Qing period.
This circulation helped transmit Confucian learning through multilingual texts to readers in different regions of the Qing Empire.
Preserving Civilization: Translating and Compiling Historical Works
One important reason for the continuity of Chinese civilization has been the longstanding tradition of compiling and preserving historical records.
After entering China proper, the Qing court regarded the compilation of the history of the preceding Ming dynasty as an important political and scholarly undertaking.
In the second year of the Shunzhi reign, an imperial order instructed the relevant institutions to begin compiling the history of the Ming.
Because important historical materials were missing, another order was issued in 1648, requiring central and provincial government offices to submit surviving documents concerning the missing periods so that they could be used in the historical compilation.
During the Kangxi reign, a dedicated Ming History Office was established. After more than ninety years of compilation and revision, the 332-juan History of Ming was finally completed in 1739.
The Veritable Records of the Ming and the History of Ming were also translated into Manchu. These Manchu versions, however, were generally preserved as drafts or manuscripts rather than being printed as standard woodblock editions.
In 1646, the Instructions of the Hongwu Emperor were compiled and translated as the Hongwu Baoxun, with a preface by the Shunzhi Emperor, and published separately in Manchu and Chinese.
Manchu Translations of the Histories of Liao, Jin, and Yuan
Nurhaci and Hong Taiji attached particular importance to studying the historical experience of earlier dynasties established by non-Han ruling houses.
Hong Taiji ordered scholars to translate the History of Liao, History of Jin, and History of Yuan into Manchu.
The project continued after the Qing entered China proper. During the Shunzhi reign, the translations were revised and finalized.
Surviving Manchu versions include manuscripts submitted for imperial inspection as well as palace woodblock editions. Particularly valuable is a surviving draft translation of the History of Liao dating from the Chongde period and now preserved in the First Historical Archives of China.
History as a Guide to Government
The Kangxi Emperor placed considerable emphasis on learning from the successes and failures of earlier dynasties.
He encouraged both civil and military officials to study history and required historical works to form part of imperial lectures.
In 1676, he specifically requested lectures based on the Zizhi Tongjian, regarding the historical successes and failures recorded in the work as useful lessons for government.
The scope of imperial lectures consequently expanded beyond the Four Books and Five Classics to include the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu.
In 1691, the Wuying Palace printed a Manchu edition of the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu in 107 juan. In his imperial preface, Kangxi emphasized that the events recorded in the work were directly relevant to the governance of the state and could serve as enduring examples and warnings.
Multilingual Historical Records of the Qing Empire
Following the traditions of earlier dynasties, the Qing court also compiled biographies, tables, imperial annals, and other historical materials relating to Qing emperors, imperial clansmen, Mongol princes, officials, and loyal subjects.
Many of these materials were prepared in both Manchu and Chinese.
In 1779, the court began compiling the Imperially Commissioned Tables and Biographies of Mongol and Muslim Princes of the Outer Domains. The work continued to be revised during the Jiaqing, Daoguang, Xianfeng, and Guangxu reigns and was produced in Manchu, Chinese, and Mongolian forms.
It preserves valuable information concerning titles, hereditary succession, promotion, rewards, punishments, and political relationships involving Mongol, Uyghur, and other elites under Qing rule.
The Qing court also continuously compiled the Veritable Records and Sacred Instructions of successive emperors.
The Veritable Records were prepared in Manchu, Chinese, and Mongolian, while the Sacred Instructions were produced in Manchu and Chinese.
Different manuscript formats were created, including elaborate red-silk and yellow-silk copies.
The Office of Military Histories
The Qing also maintained an institution known as the Fanglüeguan (方略馆), or Office for the Compilation of Military Histories.
Initially created for particular projects, it gradually became a permanent institution associated with the Grand Council.
Following major military campaigns, the office compiled official historical accounts known as fanglüe or jilüe. It also participated in the compilation of other major works.
From its establishment in the Kangxi period until its abolition in 1911, it compiled dozens of works dealing with major Qing military campaigns and frontier affairs.
These included histories of campaigns against the Three Feudatories, Russian forces, maritime opponents, the Chahar Mongols, the Zunghars, and the Jinchuan regions.
Some were prepared separately in Manchu and Chinese, while others were produced only in Chinese.
Education and the Translation of Elementary Textbooks
Elementary education has always played an important role in Chinese educational traditions.
Learning to read and write, developing proper habits, and acquiring basic ethical principles were regarded as essential elements in the education of children.
Over many centuries, Chinese educational culture produced famous introductory works such as the Three Character Classic, Hundred Family Surnames, Thousand Character Classic, Dizigui, Zhuzi Family Instructions, and other elementary texts.
Before the Qing conquest of China proper, the Manchu script itself was actively promoted through educational materials such as the Twelve Syllabic Sections (十二字头).
Hong Taiji also ordered that children between the ages of eight and fifteen receive education so that they could acquire knowledge and understand moral principles.
After the Qing entered China proper, education received even greater attention.
Government schools were established both in Beijing and in Banner garrisons throughout the empire. Students could study both Manchu and Chinese, while traditional elementary textbooks and Confucian classics formed an important part of the curriculum.
Private schools likewise used traditional educational works.
Throughout the Qing dynasty, many Chinese elementary textbooks were translated into Manchu, often appearing in Manchu-Chinese bilingual editions.
Manchu-Chinese Educational Books
Surviving Manchu books from the Beijing region include Manchu or bilingual editions of works such as:
the Thousand Character Classic, Hundred Family Surnames, Three Character Classic, Xiaoxue, Xiao'er Yu, Youxun, Youxue Xuzhi, Youxue Qionglin, Zhuzi Jiayao, Zhuzi Family Instructions, Dizigui, Caigentan, and Guwen Guanzhi.
There were also textbooks specifically designed for learning Manchu, including the Twelve Syllabic Sections, Qingwen Jiezi, Qingwen Qimeng, Chuxue Bidu, and Chuxue Zhinan.
Most were printed in bilingual Manchu-Chinese form, while some appeared in Manchu-Mongolian-Chinese editions.
Editions continued to be published from the Kangxi period through the final years of the Qing dynasty.
Most were produced by commercial publishers rather than directly by the government, and numerous manuscript copies also survive.
Their circulation suggests that there was continuing social demand for bilingual educational material and that a significant number of readers were studying both Manchu and Chinese.
Books for the Education of Imperial Children
The education of Qing imperial children also drew upon educational texts inherited from earlier Chinese dynasties.
One example is the Dijian Tushuo, compiled by the Ming statesman Zhang Juzheng in 1572 for the ten-year-old Wanli Emperor.
Soon after the Qing entered China proper, the work was adopted for the education of members of the Qing imperial family.
A Manchu manuscript dating from the Shunzhi period survives in the Palace Museum. It includes illustrations designed to help readers understand the stories and their moral significance.
The First Historical Archives of China also preserves a Manchu educational work entitled Yangzheng Tujie.
Originally compiled in the Ming dynasty for the future Taichang Emperor, the work presents sixty illustrated historical and legendary stories extending from King Wen of Zhou to the Song dynasty.
Each illustration is accompanied by explanatory text intended to encourage moral cultivation through historical examples.
The Manchu translation follows the explanations of the Chinese original, while its illustrations were not simply reproduced mechanically. The surviving Manchu version employs color, giving it a distinctive visual character.
Promoting Communication: The Compilation of Multilingual Dictionaries
Language is one of humanity's fundamental means of communication, while writing makes it possible to record and transmit information across time and space.
The Qing Empire encompassed peoples speaking and writing many different languages.
Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, Oirat/Todo, and Chagatai were among the languages and scripts used in different regions, institutions, and political contexts.
Documents and books were sometimes produced in several languages simultaneously.
This multilingual environment encouraged the compilation of numerous bilingual and multilingual dictionaries and reference works.
These works were themselves products of interaction among different cultural traditions, while at the same time facilitating further communication between them.
Nearly a Century of Different Lexicographical Works
Surviving Manchu collections contain a remarkable variety of Qing dictionaries and reference works, including the Daqing Quanshu, Tongwen Guanghui Quanshu, Man-Han Leishu Quanji, Imperially Commissioned Xiyu Tongwenzhi, Sanhe Bianlan, Imperially Commissioned Explanations of Terms in the Histories of Liao, Jin, and Yuan, Fanyi Leibian, Imperial Manchu Mirror (Yuzhi Qingwen Jian), Qingwen Wanhai, Qingwen Dianyao Daquan, Qinding Qingyu, Xinjiu Qingyu Huishu, Qingyu Zhaichao, Qingwen Huishu, Qingwen Zonghui, and various collections of terminology used in memorials, imperial edicts, government documents, and the Six Boards.
Altogether, nearly one hundred different types of lexicographical works are known.
Most were Manchu-Chinese bilingual books. Others combined Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese, Tibetan, and additional languages.
Printed editions survive from the Kangxi through the Guangxu periods, representing more than two centuries of lexicographical activity.
The Daqing Quanshu: An Early Large Manchu-Chinese Dictionary
The Daqing Quanshu was the first large-scale Manchu-Chinese bilingual dictionary of the Qing period.
It was completed in 1683, the twenty-second year of the Kangxi reign.
Its compiler, Shen Qiliang, explained in his preface that although he was Han Chinese, he had developed a strong personal interest in the Manchu language. After traveling to Beijing, he studied among Manchu scholars of the Bordered Yellow Banner and gradually acquired knowledge of the language.
His experience illustrates an important phenomenon.
As Qing rule became more firmly established and Manchu was promoted as an important official language, some Han Chinese intellectuals voluntarily studied Manchu and even devoted sustained scholarly attention to it.
The Imperial Manchu Mirror
The Yuzhi Qingwen Jian was the first major officially compiled monolingual Manchu dictionary of the Qing dynasty and remained unique as a major Manchu-only dictionary.
Following the Qing conquest, Banner garrisons were established in strategic locations throughout China, bringing Manchu soldiers and their families into predominantly Chinese-speaking environments.
Increasing contact with Chinese naturally encouraged growing use of Chinese among Manchu communities.
The Kangxi Emperor became concerned about the long-term preservation of Manchu and ordered scholars to compile a dictionary that would explain how Manchu words should be used and would provide a reliable reference for future generations.
After approximately thirty-five years of work, the Yuzhi Qingwen Jian was completed and printed in 1708.
Although it was a Manchu monolingual dictionary, its vocabulary and definitions drew extensively upon terminology and expressions found in Confucian classics and other Chinese texts.
It therefore provides another example of how sustained translation between Chinese and Manchu contributed to the development and enrichment of written Manchu.
From a Manchu Dictionary to the Pentaglot Dictionary
Between the later Kangxi and early Qianlong periods, the Yuzhi Qingwen Jian provided the foundation for additional multilingual dictionaries combining Manchu and Mongolian.
As cultural interaction deepened, the Qing court continued to develop and standardize Manchu terminology.
Beginning in the Qianlong period, officially approved “New Qing Terms” were periodically promulgated.
The Kangxi dictionary was subsequently revised and expanded, resulting in the Yuzhi Zengding Qingwen Jian, completed in 1771.
This expanded dictionary then became the foundation for increasingly multilingual versions, including Manchu-Mongolian-Chinese and four-language dictionaries, ultimately culminating in the famous Pentaglot Dictionary.
The Pentaglot Dictionary brought together Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese, Tibetan, and Chagatai.
The evolution from a monolingual Manchu dictionary to increasingly complex multilingual dictionaries vividly demonstrates the multilingual character of Qing intellectual and administrative culture.
Qingwen Huishu and the Tradition of Manchu-Chinese Dictionaries
The Qingwen Huishu was another major Manchu-Chinese bilingual dictionary.
Its compiler, Li Yanji, was a member of the Han Chinese Banners in Beijing. The dictionary was completed and printed in 1724, during the Yongzheng reign.
Drawing upon the Daqing Quanshu and the Yuzhi Qingwen Jian, it provided Chinese equivalents and accessible explanations for Manchu vocabulary and organized its entries according to the traditional Twelve Syllabic Sections of Manchu.
In 1786, Yixing compiled the Qingwen Buhui by selecting newer vocabulary that was absent from the earlier Qingwen Huishu.
In 1897, Zhikuan and Peikuan combined the Qingwen Huishu and Qingwen Buhui into the Qingwen Zonghui.
Because of its extensive vocabulary, accessible explanations, and convenient arrangement, the Qingwen Zonghui became an important reference work for Manchu studies.
Literature, Religion, Military Science, Medicine, and Other Fields
Surviving Manchu rare books are by no means limited to Confucian classics, histories, or dictionaries.
They also include works of literature, Buddhism, military science, medicine, music, agriculture, and other fields.
Many were direct translations from Chinese, while others were translated and then reorganized or edited for Manchu readers.
Literature is especially well represented.
Numerous major works of classical Chinese fiction were translated into Manchu.
Historical accounts state that Nurhaci enjoyed reading works such as the Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin, while Hong Taiji encouraged the translation of Chinese historical and literary works so that Manchu officials could learn lessons relevant to government.
The Palace Museum Library today preserves Manchu versions of works including the Records of the Three Kingdoms, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chronicles of the Eastern Zhou States, Romance of the Western Han, Romance of the Tang Dynasty, Investiture of the Gods, Water Margin, and Journey to the West.
Many surviving examples are manuscripts dating from the Shunzhi or early Kangxi periods.
Their existence indicates a strong interest in translated Chinese fiction within the early Qing court.
Manchu Translations of Popular Chinese Fiction
Outside the imperial court, the range of Chinese fiction translated into Manchu was even broader and often reflected stronger elements of entertainment and popular literary taste.
Surviving works include Manchu translations of Jin Ping Mei, Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, Shengxiao Jian, Yuzhiji, Yujiaoli, Liangjiaohun, Saihongsi, Jinfenxi, Zuimozhai, Badongtian, Feilong Zhuan, Guilian Meng, Liancheng Bi, Erdu Mei, and collections of Tang tales.
The Manchu Jin Ping Mei is particularly noteworthy.
Its main text is in Manchu, with Chinese characters accompanying certain personal names, and a printed edition dates to 1708, the forty-seventh year of the Kangxi reign.
Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio and the Romance of the Western Chamber also survive in Manchu-Chinese bilingual editions and in multiple printed versions, while many other translated novels survive primarily as manuscripts.
These books provide valuable evidence for the role of Manchu as a language not merely of administration, but also of literary reading and cultural transmission.
The Kangxi and Qianlong Eras as Periods of Multilingual Scholarship
The Kangxi Emperor possessed substantial knowledge of both Manchu and Chinese and placed great importance on the compilation and publication of books.
During his reign, the court sponsored major Chinese reference works such as the Gujin Tushu Jicheng, Peiwen Yunfu, and Kangxi Dictionary.
It also revised and published Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist canons and produced Manchu and bilingual works such as the Imperially Commissioned Guwen Yuanjian and imperial poetry associated with the Mountain Resort at Chengde.
The Qianlong period witnessed an even greater expansion of multilingual scholarship.
In addition to the compilation of the Chinese Siku Quanshu and the publication of Buddhist canons in Chinese and Mongolian, the court produced major works in Manchu-Chinese and other multilingual formats.
These included the Imperially Commissioned History of the Founding of the Qing, Researches on Manchu Origins, Comprehensive History of the Eight Banners, ritual codes, Qing legal codes, Banner regulations, and regulations relating to Xinjiang.
Other works combined Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese, and Tibetan, while still others incorporated additional Inner Asian languages.
The Manchu Buddhist Canon and Multilingual Scholarship
The Qianlong court also undertook the translation of the Buddhist canon into Manchu.
Completed and printed in 1790, the work was entitled the Imperially Commissioned Complete Buddhist Canon Translated into the Qing Language.
Another major multilingual work, the Imperially Commissioned Xiyu Tongwenzhi, recorded geographical names, personal names, mountains, rivers, and other terminology relating to Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai, and surrounding regions in multiple languages and scripts, accompanied by Chinese explanations.
Such works demonstrate the extraordinary linguistic complexity of Qing scholarship and administration.
The Thirty-Two Styles of Manchu Seal Script
In 1748, the Qianlong Emperor ordered Fuheng and other officials to create thirty-two styles of Manchu seal script, drawing inspiration from Chinese seal-script traditions.
The imperial Ode to Mukden was subsequently written and printed in these different styles of Manchu and Chinese seal script by the Wuying Palace.
During this process, thirty-two corresponding forms of Chinese seal script were also organized, standardized, and given consistent names.
This project was therefore more than the creation of decorative Manchu lettering.
It represented a visual and calligraphic interaction between two writing traditions.
The resulting Manchu seal scripts adapted the aesthetic vocabulary of Chinese seal writing to the structural characteristics of the vertically written Manchu script.
Military, Musical, Agricultural, and Medical Works
Manchu-language books also covered many fields of practical knowledge.
Military works translated primarily from Chinese included the Art of War and other texts associated with Sunzi, the Six Secret Teachings, Three Strategies, Sushu of Huang Shigong, and military writings associated with Zhuge Liang.
Musical books included bilingual Manchu-Chinese editions of works on the qin and musical theory, as well as Qing compilations of ritual and court music.
Agricultural and animal-husbandry works included translations dealing with material culture, veterinary medicine, horse care, and physiognomy of horses.
Medical literature included works translated from Chinese and foreign languages dealing with medicine, pharmacology, pulse diagnosis, anatomy, and Western pharmaceuticals.
The breadth of these subjects demonstrates the extraordinary range of material that was transmitted through Manchu translation.
What Manchu Rare Books Tell Us Today
Taken as a whole, the surviving corpus of Manchu rare books provides important evidence for understanding the cultural history of the Qing dynasty.
First, the Qing court devoted substantial resources to transmitting Chinese cultural traditions centered on Confucian learning. The translation of large numbers of Chinese classics into Manchu served political and educational purposes, but it also objectively expanded the channels through which classical Chinese learning circulated among different populations and regions.
Second, traditional Chinese culture was preserved and developed through multiple linguistic forms. When Chinese works were translated into Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, and other languages, they acquired new textual forms and new pathways of transmission. Multilingual books therefore became another means through which the cultural heritage of China was preserved and transmitted.
Third, Manchu rare books provide direct documentary evidence of cultural interaction among the different peoples of the Qing period.
They preserve traces of translation, education, political administration, historical scholarship, literature, religion, medicine, military knowledge, lexicography, and artistic experimentation.
For this reason, their importance extends far beyond the study of the Manchu language itself.
A Manchu manuscript or multilingual Qing printed book can simultaneously belong to the history of language, the history of books, the history of translation, and the history of cultural interaction.
When we open these books today, we are therefore not simply encountering texts written in an old language.
We are encountering material evidence of a historical world in which Manchu, Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan, and other languages continuously met, translated, borrowed from, and interacted with one another.
That multilingual world is one of the most important dimensions of the cultural history preserved in Qing-period Manchu rare books.
Original Author: Wu Yuanfeng (吴元丰)
Compiled and Translated by: MING YE