Did the Manchu Script Develop from Mongolian?

The Creation of Manchu Writing in 1599, Nurhaci's Role, and Dahai's Seventeenth-Century Reforms

By MING YE

The Manchu script and traditional Mongolian writing share striking visual similarities.

Both are written vertically, from top to bottom, with columns progressing from left to right. Their letters are generally connected, and individual letters may take different forms depending on whether they appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a word.

These similarities lead many people encountering Manchu writing for the first time to ask an important question:

Did the Manchu script develop from Mongolian writing?

The answer is yes.

The Manchu script was created on the basis of traditional Mongolian writing. However, it was not simply a direct copy of Mongolian script. It was adapted to represent the sounds of Manchu and gradually developed into a distinct writing system.

This process involved two particularly important historical stages: the creation of Manchu writing under Nurhaci around 1599, and the reforms associated with Dahai around 1632.

To understand this history accurately, however, we must distinguish between the origins of the writing system, earlier Jurchen writing traditions, and the accounts of script creation preserved in Qing historical sources.

Did the Jurchens Have Their Own Writing System Before Manchu?

Manchu was not the first writing system used to record a Jurchen language.

As early as the twelfth century, the Jurchens who established the Jin dynasty had developed their own writing systems.

These are commonly known as the Jurchen large script and Jurchen small script. Their creation was closely connected to the development of the early Jin state.

In their structure and historical origins, these earlier Jurchen scripts differed substantially from the later Manchu script, which was developed from Mongolian writing.

Following the fall of the Jin dynasty, the use of Jurchen writing underwent a long period of change and gradual decline.

By the time Nurhaci rose to power in the late sixteenth century, the Jin-period Jurchen scripts were no longer widely used as administrative writing systems among his ruling groups.

This does not mean, however, that Jurchen society had no experience with written communication.

Jurchen communities maintained political, military, and commercial relations with Ming China and various Mongolian groups.

Chinese and Mongolian writing both played practical roles in these interactions.

Mongolian script, in particular, already had an established presence in political communication across Northeast Asia.

The creation of Manchu writing therefore did not take place in a society entirely unfamiliar with written language.

Rather, it emerged from an environment in which different writing traditions were already being used for communication and administration.

Why Did Nurhaci Need to Create a Manchu Writing System?

During the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci gradually expanded his control over the Jianzhou Jurchen groups and began establishing more centralized political and military institutions.

As his authority grew, the administrative responsibilities of his emerging state became increasingly complex.

Military orders needed to be communicated, personnel and supplies had to be managed, political correspondence required documentation, and important events needed to be preserved in written records.

Continued reliance on written forms of other languages could create practical difficulties in translation, communication, and recordkeeping.

A writing system capable of directly representing the language of Nurhaci's people could improve administrative communication and support the development of a more consistent documentary tradition.

An important historical distinction is necessary here.

The political organization Nurhaci was developing in 1599 was not yet the Qing Empire.

Nurhaci established the Later Jin state in 1616. It was not until 1636 that Hong Taiji formally adopted the dynastic name Qing.

The creation of Manchu writing in 1599 should therefore be understood within the political consolidation of the Jurchen groups before the establishment of the Later Jin state, rather than simply described as a language policy introduced after the founding of the Qing dynasty.

1599: How Did Erdeni and Gagai Contribute to the Creation of Manchu Writing?

According to Qing historical sources, including the Manzhou Shilu (Records of the Manchus), Nurhaci instructed Erdeni and Gagai in 1599 to develop a writing system based on Mongolian script for recording their own language.

This account is an important historical source for understanding the origins of Manchu writing.

The names Erdeni and Gagai are consequently closely associated with the earliest stage of the Manchu script's development.

From the perspective of writing-system history, their central task was to adapt an existing Mongolian alphabetic system to record a language different from Mongolian.

This required addressing several practical questions.

Which Mongolian letters could represent similar sounds in the Jurchen language?

Which sounds could not be clearly distinguished using the existing letterforms?

How should words and grammatical forms be represented in writing?

And how could writers and readers gradually establish a set of shared conventions?

However, surviving historical sources do not provide modern researchers with a complete technical account of every step taken during the creation of the script in 1599.

Although Qing records establish the historical association of Erdeni and Gagai with the creation of early Manchu writing, it would be inappropriate to attribute the design of particular letters to either individual without direct evidence.

A more precise interpretation is that:

The creation of Manchu writing in 1599 was an important stage in establishing a Jurchen-language writing system based on Mongolian script, under Nurhaci's direction.

Why Is Old Manchu Called the Undotted Manchu Script?

The early form of Manchu writing developed and used after 1599 is generally known as Old Manchu.

It is also commonly called the undotted Manchu script.

This name is primarily used to distinguish the early writing system from the later reformed Manchu script, which employed additional distinguishing marks, including dots and circles.

However, the term undotted is a conventional historical description. It should not be interpreted too literally as proof that every early written document was entirely free of any dot-like marks.

Old Manchu retained many of the original letterforms of traditional Mongolian writing.

Because Manchu and Mongolian had different sound systems, some letters borrowed from Mongolian could not clearly distinguish certain sounds in Manchu.

This created a degree of ambiguity in early written Manchu.

For example, some letterforms were sufficiently similar that readers needed to rely on vocabulary and context to determine their intended pronunciation or meaning.

For readers familiar with the language and the subject of a document, such ambiguity did not necessarily make a text impossible to understand.

However, as the political organization became more complex, reducing ambiguity became increasingly important.

Accuracy was particularly significant in military orders, official names, place names, and administrative records.

Old Manchu should therefore not be regarded as an ineffective or merely experimental writing system.

It was already capable of recording language and supporting administrative work, although further improvements remained possible.

Around 1632: What Reforms Did Dahai Introduce?

Another important figure in the history of Manchu writing was Dahai.

Qing historical accounts associate Dahai with improvements to the Manchu script, and around 1632 is commonly treated as an important period in the development of more standardized Manchu writing.

According to traditional accounts, Dahai introduced or standardized distinguishing marks, including dots and circles, to make certain letters and sounds easier to differentiate.

These reforms improved the script's ability to represent phonological distinctions.

The reformed writing system is generally known as the dotted Manchu script, or New Manchu.

However, the standardization of Manchu writing should not necessarily be understood as a process completed in a single day.

Changes in writing practices, the standardization of letterforms, and the adoption of spelling conventions across different administrative institutions could develop over time.

It is therefore more historically cautious to regard 1632 as an important reform milestone rather than assume that every Manchu letterform and spelling convention became permanently fixed during that year.

Dahai's contribution also did not involve inventing an entirely new alphabet unrelated to Mongolian writing.

On the contrary, the reformed Manchu script preserved the fundamental structure of the earlier writing system.

The importance of Dahai's reforms lies in making a script inherited from Mongolian better suited to accurately representing Manchu, rather than severing its historical connection with Mongolian writing.

What Is the Difference Between Old Manchu and New Manchu?

The most important differences between Old Manchu and New Manchu concern the representation of sounds and the standardization of writing conventions.

Old Manchu retained more of the original Mongolian letterforms, which meant that some distinct Manchu sounds were not clearly differentiated in writing.

New Manchu introduced or standardized distinguishing marks that improved the clarity of the relationship between letters and sounds.

These changes helped reduce ambiguity and provided a stronger foundation for consistent official writing.

Nevertheless, Old Manchu and New Manchu remained different developmental stages within the same writing tradition.

Both used vertical writing, both featured connected letters, and both retained the fundamental structure inherited from Mongolian script.

They should not therefore be treated as two completely unrelated writing systems.

Nor should we assume that the appearance of New Manchu meant that every earlier document was rewritten or that older writing practices immediately disappeared.

The forms found in historical documents often reflect their particular dates, writing environments, and scribal conventions.

For researchers studying early Qing archives, understanding the differences between Old Manchu and New Manchu is essential for accurately identifying and interpreting documents from different periods.

Why Did the Manchus Not Simply Copy Mongolian Writing Without Changes?

If Manchu script originated from Mongolian writing, why was it necessary to create and reform a separate system?

The answer lies in the fact that Mongolian writing originally developed to represent the Mongolian language.

Although Manchu and Mongolian experienced extensive historical contact, they are different languages.

Manchu belongs to the Tungusic language family, while Mongolian belongs to the Mongolic language family.

Their sound systems, vocabularies, and grammatical structures are not identical.

When a writing system is borrowed for use with another language, its existing letters may not be able to represent every sound distinction in the new language accurately.

This is why many writing systems throughout history have undergone changes after being adopted by speakers of different languages.

Manchu provides a clear example.

It borrowed the basic forms of Mongolian writing but gradually developed letter distinctions and spelling conventions suited to Manchu.

Thus, Manchu writing was not a method of recording Manchu history in the Mongolian language. It was a writing system derived from Mongolian letters and adapted to record Manchu itself.

This distinction is fundamental.

The historical origin of a script must not be confused with the linguistic origin of the language it represents.

Does the Mongolian Origin of Manchu Script Mean Manchu Culture Came from Mongolian Culture?

Such a conclusion would be an oversimplification.

The Manchus and various Mongolian groups maintained long-standing and extensive historical relationships.

These interactions involved military affairs, politics, marriage alliances, religion, trade, and administrative institutions.

The direct influence of Mongolian writing on the creation of Manchu script is one important example of this cultural contact.

However, borrowing a writing system does not mean that an entire culture originated from the people who previously used that script.

Throughout history, different societies have adopted writing systems from others while preserving their own languages, social institutions, and cultural traditions.

After adopting Mongolian writing, the Manchus modified it according to the requirements of their language and gradually established a distinct Manchu documentary tradition.

Later, Manchu became an important language of administration and historical recordkeeping during the Qing dynasty.

It was used in imperial affairs, Eight Banner administration, military orders, diplomatic correspondence, legal institutions, and other government documents.

Mongolian writing continued to be used for Mongolian-language documents and related administrative functions within the Qing Empire's multilingual system.

The two scripts shared a direct historical relationship but served different languages.

Why Did Manchu Become an Important Written Language of the Qing Dynasty?

The initial creation of Manchu writing was closely connected to the growing administrative needs of Nurhaci's political organization.

However, as the institutions of the Later Jin and Qing states developed, the functions of written Manchu expanded considerably.

Under Hong Taiji and subsequent Qing rulers, Manchu became increasingly important in government administration and political recordkeeping.

Following the establishment of the Qing dynasty, Manchu served as a major written language within the imperial household and central administrative institutions.

Large collections of Qing archival materials preserve Manchu memorials, official orders, correspondence, and other historical records.

These documents remain important primary sources for the study of Qing history.

It is also essential to recognize that the Qing dynasty was not a state that used Manchu exclusively.

Chinese, Mongolian, and other languages and scripts played important roles in different regions and administrative contexts.

The importance of Manchu writing should therefore be understood within the broader multilingual governance of the Qing Empire.

Manchu was both a writing system for recording the Manchu language and an important component of Qing state administration and historical documentation.

Did the Manchu Script Develop from Mongolian?

The answer is clear:

Yes. The Manchu script was created directly on the basis of traditional Mongolian writing and subsequently developed into a distinct system adapted to the Manchu language.

In 1599, Nurhaci instructed Erdeni, Gagai, and others to develop an early Manchu writing system using Mongolian script as its foundation.

This early form is generally known as Old Manchu, or the undotted Manchu script.

Around 1632, Dahai participated in reforms that introduced or standardized distinguishing marks, including dots and circles, allowing the script to represent different Manchu sounds more clearly.

The standardized writing system that subsequently developed retained the vertical direction and fundamental letter structure of traditional Mongolian while establishing its own spelling conventions.

The relationship between Manchu and Mongolian writing is therefore not a case of one language directly evolving from another.

It is a relationship of historical inheritance between writing systems.

The Manchu script developed from Mongolian writing, but the Manchu language did not develop from the Mongolian language.

This is the most important distinction to remember when studying the origins of Manchu writing.

When we examine an early Manchu document, we see more than the influence of Mongolian script on the formation of a new writing system.

We also see how an emerging political community adapted an existing writing tradition to its own language, gradually developing it into an important instrument of state administration and historical recordkeeping.

— MING YE